I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Energy for Sustainable Development and Gender in Developing Countries . . . . .
III. Energy for Sustainable Development and Gender in Industrialised Countries  . . .
IV. Gender Aspects of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V.    Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI.    Annexes   . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 
 
I.  INTRODUCTION
1. The lack of access to modern energy and the effects of climate change are interlinked
and the impacts on women’s lives, both in developing and industrialized countries, reflect
the gender inequalities and inequities prevailing in the social, economic and political arenas.  
 
2. More than two billion people in developing countries, particularly in rural areas, use
traditional fuels, such as wood, charcoal, and dung for cooking, and lack basic modern
energy services. The lack of access to affordable energy services is a serious barrier to
sustainable livelihoods and emergence from poverty. Seventy percent of the 1.3 billion
people in developing countries living on less than one dollar a day are women, therefore it
follows that energy poverty is a problem that has a disproportionate effect on women.  
 
3. The North-South dimension of the problem must also be considered, especially in the
light of climate change mitigation and adaptation policies and energy consumption patterns.
As highlighted by Agenda 21, current levels of energy consumption and production are not
sustainable, especially if demand continues to increase. Over-consumption of energy in
industrialised countries is accompanied by lack of access to energy in developing countries,
which affects their capacity to meet their basic needs and combat poverty. The linkages
between gender equality and energy consumption and production also have consequences in
terms of mitigation responses to climate change.   
 
Addressing the gender aspects of energy for sustainable development and climate change
will ensure a more just political response and help to formulate more appropriate poverty
reduction policies and strategies, since women are disproportionately represented among the
poorest of the poor.
 
4. In 1992 the UN Conference on Environment and Development produced Agenda 21  
recognized the advancement of women as an essential element of sustainable development.
The Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 adopted the Beijing Platform for Action in
which governments agreed to support women’s equal access to sustainable and affordable
energy technologies and to use participatory needs assessments to design national energy
plans. In 2001, the Ninth Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development
(CSD-9) urged governments to address the health and safety concerns of women and
children in rural areas, including the impacts of carrying fuel wood over long distances and
exposure to the smoke from open fires. CSD-9 also recommended international cooperation
to promote women’s equal access and opportunities to energy and their greater involvement
in energy policy decision-making processes.
 
5. Other UN conferences have also acknowledged the importance of adopting a gender
specific approach to implementing policies, and gender equality has been identified as one
of the Millennium Development Goals and designated as a crosscutting theme for work of
the Commission on Sustainable Development. Yet when it comes to energy, climate change,
and environmental protection, UN agencies, national governments, international
organisations and non-government groups still fail to integrate gender perspectives
adequately into policies and actions.
 
II ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
6. Affordable, locally appropriate and environmentally sustainable sources of energy are
needed everywhere for social and economic development. In developing countries
especially in rural areas and ‘informal’ urban settlements, lack of energy is a crucial factor
that limits people’s efforts to escape from poverty and expand their productive activities. To
reach development objectives in such settings, including achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals, emphasis must be placed on increasing access to sustainable and
affordable energy sources.  
 
A.  The Issues At Stake
 
7. Although everyone needs energy, in many communities women suffer the most from
‘energy poverty’ because they are responsible for supplying their families with food, fuel,
and water, often without the benefit of basic modern infrastructure. Lack of energy for
household needs and small-scale enterprises limits women’s ability to take care of their
families and themselves, pursue higher levels of education, earn income, and participate in
social and community affairs.  
 
8. Without access to convenient, affordable fuels for cooking and heating, women have to
spend large amounts of time and physical energy obtaining traditional fuels (such as wood,
charcoal, dung and agricultural wastes) to heat water and cook meals. At the same time
women in rural areas often have to grow and process their own food, and transport heavy
loads, without any motorised equipment. If they do not have running water or motorised
pumps for their homes, women also have to spend time each day gathering water from taps,
or possibly polluted wells, rivers or springs. As wood and other traditional fuels become
scarce due to over-harvesting, land clearing, armed conflicts or environmental degradation,
women may have to travel longer distances to find fuel. While women are searching for
fuel—especially those forced to seek shelter in refugee camps—they face risks of assault
and violence, as well as injury due to dangerous terrain, snakes and wild animals.
 
9. Indoor air pollution is a major problem. Working over indoor fires exposes women to
smoky conditions that cause respiratory and other illnesses. In low-income homes,
especially in rural areas and ‘informal’ urban settlements, women often spend many hours a
day near an open fire cooking meals or, in cold months, tending it for warmth. As a result,
they are exposed to harmful levels of gases, particles, and dangerous compounds, such as
carbon monoxide, benzene and formaldehyde. Indoor air pollution is responsible for more
than 1.6 million deaths per year due to pneumonia, chronic respiratory disease and lung
cancer. Other diseases associated with indoor air pollution include asthma, bronchitis,
tuberculosis, cataracts, low birth weight and heart disease.
 
10. The particular needs of women with respect to improved access to energy are rarely
taken into account in national policies and projects. Energy agencies tend to focus primarily
on increasing fossil fuel supplies and expanding electrical distribution grids for industrial
and urban expansion. While many energy managers are male engineers with primarily
technical expertise, a transition to more sustainable energy sources will require decision-
makers to also consider social concerns, including the gender-differentiated needs and
impacts of proposed sustainable energy initiatives.  
 
11. Relatively simple changes—like gathering data from both men and women—provide
crucial evidence of how a particular energy policy might impact men and women
differently. More appropriate measures, based on the insights and experiences of all those
most directly involved, can then be drawn up and put in place to ensure that the project
reflects the genuine needs and concerns of all the prospective beneficiaries.  
 
B.  Women’s Energy Needs
12. Women’s energy needs are not necessarily different from men’s energy needs. However,
where social traditions dictate that men and women have distinct roles and responsibilities
based on their gender, inattention to these differences can lead to policies and projects that
do not improve the lives of women (especially those in poor communities) and may even
make their lives more difficult by reinforcing women’s low status, economic disadvantages,
poor health and lack of power. Energy priorities identified by women include:
 
i. Clean fuels and equipment for cooking, heating and productive uses—Since in many
cultures women are responsible for preparing food, there is much emphasis on the need for
clean-burning fuels that are affordable and convenient to obtain. In places where it was once
relatively easy to get firewood or charcoal, traditional fuel sources may now be scarce due
to environmental degradation, and women would particularly benefit from increased
availability of modern fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or bio-fuels and
biomass briquettes that can be produced locally from crops and agricultural residues
available in rural areas. Improved stove technologies, with better efficiency and ventilation,
as well as solar cookers, can also help reduce the dependency on unhealthy fuels and
accompanying air pollution. Since many of women’s business activities also involve
cooking or heat processing, better fuels and thermal equipment can also advance women’s
economic opportunities.  
 
ii. Motorised equipment for grinding, pumping, agriculture, and transportation—Women
need alternatives that require less physical energy for planting, irrigating and harvesting
crops, grinding grains and processing staple foods, hauling water for household, agricultural
and commercial uses, and transporting goods and materials. Relief from these strenuous
daily tasks would help women preserve their health, and allow them to pursue educational
and economic opportunities and spend more time with their families. Water pumps and
motorised equipment can be powered by electricity from the grid, solar, wind or hydro
generators, by engines run on diesel fuel or modern bio-fuels, and by wind or water mills.  
 
iii. Electricity for lights, appliances, communications and computers—Household lighting
and communications equipment allows women, who often operate home-based enterprises
compatible with household and care-taking responsibilities, to expand their reading,
working and leisure time, improve their efficiency and knowledge base, and become more
socially and politically engaged. Where grid connections are unavailable, electricity can be
produced using decentralised generators running on diesel or bio-fuels, or wind, solar, and
water power.
 
C. Major Challenges and Strategies  
 
13. Building greater understanding of linkages between gender, energy and development—
Because much of women’s daily labour is unpaid or outside the ‘formal’ economy, their
contributions to social and economic development continue to be under-valued.
Discrimination against women is directly related to their higher rates of poverty, ill health
and illiteracy. Persuading decision-makers in developing countries to invest in basic energy
infrastructure that would reduce women’s current burdens could bring substantial returns in
terms of meeting the commitments of Agenda 21 and JPOI, as well as the Millennium
Development Goals by increasing options for producing income and reducing poverty levels
(MDG 1), providing more educational opportunities for women and girls (MDG 2) and
greater empowerment of women (MDG 3), improving health and safety for women and their
families (MDGs  4, 5 and 6), and ensuring more sustainable use of natural resources (MDG
7).  
 
i. The main strategies employed by advocates include lobbying national governments,
agencies and donors at international meetings, building public awareness with explanatory
materials, toolkits, and training materials and producing research on best practices relating
to integration of gender and energy concerns in sustainable energy policies, programmes
and projects.
 
14. Enabling women’s voices to be heard in decision-making—Women are currently under-
represented in energy policy making positions, and generally still face constraints in
decision-making process at all levels of social organisation whether it be in national and
local government or in their homes and workplaces. Although having more women in
positions of political power may not guarantee that the energy concerns of women living in
poverty become national priorities, greater participation of women in the design and
implementation of sustainable energy initiatives will increase the likelihood that women as
well as men will benefit from them.
 
i. Helpful strategies for increasing women’s involvement in decision-making include
capacity building and technical training to enable their participation in the energy sector;
promotion of participatory processes and needs assessments that facilitate the engagement
of more women in national and local decisions about energy policies and projects and
collection and analysis of gender-disaggregated data in all energy initiatives.  
 
15. Addressing constraints affecting women’s access to energy technologies—Sometimes
new sources of income using energy-related equipment can help pay for improved energy
services, but women tend to have difficulty earning enough income, raising capital, or
obtaining credit for investing in such equipment. Furthermore women are often constrained
by social and legal traditions that limit their options to own land or property, and that could
be used as collateral to borrow money without a co-signer, or to obtain technical training.  
i. Strategies to address these constraints include making available to women small-scale,
affordable energy equipment and fuel containers, financing that is responsive to women’s
credit constraints, and technical training that is convenient and appropriate for women’s
schedules. Assuring women’s land rights is also critical to improving their access to energy
resources.
 
16. Empowering women to become energy entrepreneurs—Women and girls will need to
gain greater confidence and expertise in business and technical matters in order to become
more actively involved in social and economic development activities. Community projects
that engage women in sustainable energy enterprises can provide training, experience and
self-confidence, and encourage women to find solutions to meet their own energy
technology needs. Such projects can also serve as starting points for women and girls to
pursue higher levels of education in engineering and science so that they can become more
active in the energy sector.
 
i. Strategies that can be employed include supporting women and women’s groups
undertaking sustainable energy enterprises and initiatives; providing training in business
and production skills; and encouraging women and girls to obtain advanced degrees in
science and engineering.
 
D. Lessons Learned
 
17. Supportive government policies help promote the integration of gender concerns into
energy policies, projects and planning processes—For example, in Uganda, the National
Gender Policy was a significant factor in the gender-responsiveness of the Uganda
Photovoltaic Pilot Project for Rural Electrification, which was designed to overcome
financial, social and institutional barriers affecting access to solar technologies.1
 
18. Energy programmes work best when they are included in integrated approaches to
community development involving both women and men—The Rural Energy Development
Programme in Nepal has used the installation of micro-hydro power systems as an entry
point for community economic development, and ensured that both men and women
participate in planning processes by establishing separate male and female committees that
then work together on specific projects chosen by the community as a whole. The project’s
emphasis on including women and on gender and power relations has made it a model for
gender sensitive energy planning.
 
19. Participatory processes allow stakeholders to identify specific energy and development
needs—In Bangladesh, for example, a project supporting the production of battery-operated
lamps by rural women (called ‘Opportunity for Women in Renewable Energy Technology
Utilization’) was designed with input from local women after surveys showed that they had
identified household lighting as a priority in their remote off-grid location. The women
learned to produce the lamps in a micro-enterprise manufacturing facility and distributed
them through rural markets.
 
20. Income-generating uses of energy technologies can help make energy services
affordable to women, and increase their social and political status—The Mali
Multifunctional Platform Project for village power has enabled women’s groups to use
diesel generators to operate a variety of end use equipment, including grinding mills, oil
pressers and battery chargers, and also to run lights and water pumps. By charging for these
energy services, they have increased their own incomes, and gained respect for bringing
significant benefits to their villages.   
 
21. Introduction of energy technologies, such as improved stoves, to meet environmental
goals will be most successful if they also address the needs of the people meant to use
them—For example, in India, a small non-governmental organization called TIDE
(Technology Informatics Design Endeavour) found that women in rural areas rejected stoves
distributed by the government to reduce consumption of fuel wood, because they did not
reduce smoke, which was more important to the women. New designs that met women’s
needs were rapidly adopted without any government intervention.5

III. ENERGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN
INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES
22. In the industrialised nations, gender biases and social and economic differentials are
also evident in terms of access to energy, affordability, and women’s role in achieving that,
and the absence of women at the decision-making level of the energy sector. Over
consumption in industrialised countries weakens the capacity of developing countries to
cover their energy needs and to combat poverty, which affects primarily women.


A. The Issues At Stake
 
23. Access to energy, especially to “clean” energy, is more difficult for women in Eastern
Europe than for women in Western Europe. Gathering wood for fuel to produce energy for
domestic needs exposes women to high risks of psychological and physical violence, not
only in former war zones such as Kosovo or Chechnya, but also in many peaceful but
impoverished transitional countries.
 
24. Governments are ultimately responsible for the provision of basic human needs.
Liberalisation and privatization of essential public goods like water, energy and transport is
problematic because it shifts responsibility from governments to private investors who
remain largely unaccountable to citizens in general. This situation has a negative impact on
the poorest and in particular on women’s lives. In the EU, the liberalization of energy
markets reduced energy prices and gave consumers more choices in terms of suppliers but at
the expense of quality and availability—as when public transport services are cutback or
catered exclusively to the needs of people in paid employment, or when water quality falls
while prices rise. Previous privatisation processes in energy and water supply have shown
that private households have profited substantially less from liberalisation of energy than
has industry; across the EU private households paid on average 60 percent more for their
electricity than industry in 2003 compared with 51 percent in 1994. At the same time,
liberalisation is accompanied by massive job cuts, which are frequently detrimental to the
advancement of women.  
 
25. The rise of energy prices affects energy accessibility and its usage by the poorest,
particularly elderly women and single mothers. For example, women on low incomes tend
to live in poorly insulated houses, equipped with old and less energy efficient domestic
appliances. Both these factors lead to a higher demand for energy, and consequently higher
expenditure on energy as a proportion of the overall household budget, which may, in turn,
lead to energy poverty.
 
26. Energy poverty is a growing problem in industrialised countries, where many
households need to spend around 20% of their income on all fuel use to heat the home to an
adequate standard and for meeting their needs for lighting, cooking and running domestic
appliances
 . The recent rise of oil and gas prices showed direct impacts on poor households that were
forced to take out loans for their energy bills. In Canada e.g. in 2003, low income
households (lowest quintile) spend over 14% of their income on fuel and electricity - three
times as much as all households in Canada6. Comparable data is available for Great Britain,
were 19.2 percent of single pensioner households or 16.8. percent of lone parent households
are facing energy poverty7 (source) - both with a high share of women. Heating or cooling
and cooking can be problematic for people on low incomes if they have a restricted choice
of energy forms; electricity is expensive and solid fuel produces smoke that has negative
health impacts. 

Women’s projects in Armenia and Uzbekistan repeatedly report that energy poverty is a
major problem. In order to keep warm and to have energy for cooking, poor households are
forced to burn their domestic waste, which contains high percentages of plastic and other
synthetic materials. The health impacts are immense and women, who are exposed when
heating and cooking, are most vulnerable. Burning waste in burn barrels or woodstoves
creates toxic airborne soot particles that can enter the body through the eyes, through the
protective mucous in the nose or through capillaries in the lungs. The effects can include
damage to the lungs, nervous system, kidneys and liver. Chronic diseases like bronchitis,
emphysema and most cancers can take 20 years to develop and can be caused by low
exposures to smoke and toxins that originally appeared harmless. Children can be at much
greater risk; because of their smaller body size they inhale more air per pound of body mass
than do adults therefore absorbing a proportionately larger dose of toxins8. Children’s bodies
are also more susceptible to damage from the mercury, lead, cadmium and other heavy
metals found in the smoke of trash fires because their nervous systems are not fully
developed.  
 
27. In many countries, women are more severely affected by energy policy taxation
instruments such as eco- or energy taxes because the proportion of their already lower
incomes that has to be spent on energy rises as a result—although the eco-tax does have a
more positive influence on the energy-saving behaviour of women than on that of men.
 
28. Women and men differ in their preferences regarding energy production. In Finland, for
example, only 14 percent of women supported long-term use of nuclear power compared to
46 percent of men. Similar results have been obtained from many other countries including
Germany, India, Korea and the U.S.9 The reasons given by women include the health risks;
the risks associated with the technology itself (like the 1986 Chernobyl reactor disaster and
the possibility such facilities could be possible targets for terrorist attacks); and the
unresolved problem of nuclear waste, which shifts the consequences of our present-day
energy consumption on to future generations.  
 
Is nuclear energy a safe alternative?
The experience of Chernobyl is proof that nuclear energy can be very dangerous, despite
efforts by the pro-atomic lobby to present nuclear energy as a safe and useful alternative10.
In the fields of science and medicine it is widely accepted that there is no safe threshold for
radiation impacts on living organisms, meaning that any additional radiation exposure,
however small, will inevitably cause negative effects among members of the exposed group
although it is not possible to predict exactly who will suffer, when or in what way.11
 
29. Energy consumption in industrialised countries also reveals a significant gender
component. For example, in the transport sector women, in all age and income groups,
consume less energy; they use more public transport and drive more energy-saving cars. In
addition, the transport sector is the area with the greatest growth rate, which generates an
increase of energy consumption and impacts climate protection, land use and biodiversity.
However, outside the transport sector, few gender comparative consumption studies have
been conducted. Some outstanding questions: Who consumes energy for what purpose and
at what level (e.g. for care work, for information and communication technology and
communications, for leisure activities, etc.)? How is energy demand generated or reduced
and by what means (like heat insulation, energy-efficient appliances, geographical
accessibility)? Who is affected by energy-saving measures and in what role, and what does
that mean in terms of possible additional work (externalisation of gender-specific loads)?
 
30. A few studies on energy-saving measures and instruments, utilising a gender
perspective, have been conducted. These studies show that, as a rule, women and men
favour different measures. For example, men have substantially more faith in technical
solutions to problems whereas women consider behavioural and lifestyle to be essential. At
the same time, women are less informed about energy-saving measures than are men. This is
linked to the technical bias of the information campaigns and/or a failure to address the
target group adequately.  
 
31. Women tend not to be involved in decisions about technical solutions to reduce energy
consumption, partly because relatively few possess technical qualifications. Also, women
have less financial resources and therefore less access to residential property, which means
fewer women are making decisions about technical solutions as home owners like whether
to install thermal-insulation and energy-efficient heating systems, or to use solar energy.  
 
32. The low proportion of women employed in the energy industry as well as their marginal
involvement in planning and decision-making are also illustrative of the gender inequality
and inequity related to energy. While the proportion of women in the energy sector has
started to rise in recent years, the sector is still dominated by men, particularly in the
technical areas. In Australia women make up 20 percent of the work force in the electricity,
gas and water sectors, but occupy less than five percent of technical posts; in Germany, the
share of female technical staff in the energy industry is around six percent and in decision-
making positions four percent. Women in the energy industry work mainly in
administration, sales, finance, catering and personnel. The energy sector has a highly
masculine image. This is known to be a significant barrier to female participation.  
 
33. In the area of renewable energies, according to a recently conducted survey in Germany,
management and supervisory boards in trade associations and companies are composed
almost exclusively of men. The situation appears somewhat better among the energy
distributors and in local and regional pressure groups. The burgeoning renewable energies
sector must be monitored and evaluated very closely from the gender perspective, because
many jobs have been and will continue to be generated here.  
 
34. Energy companies are beginning to recognize that women bring benefits to the
workplace. For example, in Canada, the oil and gas sector is promoting a diverse workforce
and recognising the contributions people make as capable individuals rather than as
members of designated groups.  
 
B. Lessons Learned  
 
35. In order to demonstrate the linkages between gender equality and sustainable energy
policies, it is important to dedicate resources for research and data collection, and to
disseminate case studies that promote best practices and share lessons learned.  
 
36. The implementation of gender mainstreaming in many European countries is now
providing the opportunity to close existing gaps—Instruments have been developed for
monitoring gender impacts, but gender analyses of measures in the energy sector are
currently still being carried out very much in isolation. Initial research projects
incorporating gender related issues are being developed, but results and findings are not yet
available.  
 
37. The 2004 International Conference on Renewable Energies in Bonn provided an
example of the benefits of involving gender experts and incorporating the gender
perspective—The Women’s Major Group presented the concerns of advocates, which were
supported by many governments. Recommendations by the women’s organisations to
integrate the gender perspective, to develop appropriate instruments and to implement
further training, were incorporated in the International Action Plan agreed in Bonn and
could be instructive in the CSD process.  
 
C. Challenges  
 
38. In order to achieve progress in the degree to which the gender perspective is taken into
account in the energy sector, the following requirements will have to be met:
 
i. Gaps in data and statistics in the area of gender and energy must be filled as a matter of
urgency—This applies, at the local, regional or national levels, to energy consumption by
men and women based on types and purposes of use; preferences of women and men with
regard to energy production and energy policy instruments and measures; findings
concerning the conditions underlying energy-saving measures and their gender-
differentiated effects; analyses of planning and investment in the energy sector that take into
account gender-differentiated/supply-economic preferences and knock-on effects; and the
proportion of women and men among employees and in decision-making posts in the energy
industry and in bodies concerned with energy policy.
 
ii. Existing instruments for reviewing the effects on both sexes of measures, programmes
and plans in the energy sector must be utilised and developed further.

iii. The allocation of funds in the energy sector should be tied to the implementation of
gender mainstreaming.
 
iv. NGOs, in particular environmental NGOs, must be made aware of gender perspectives
in the energy sector and trained to integrate gender in their work. The same applies to the
other Major Groups represented in the CSD process.
 
v. Case studies reflecting the gender aspects of energy policies and practices in
industrialised countries must be collected, evaluated and used to replicate successful
strategies, devise practical plans of action and identify possible obstacles.
 
iv. GENDER ASPECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 

39. Climate change is an environmental problem with a strong political and development
component. The impacts of global climate change are not only physical and economic, (for
instance, in the form of natural disasters), but also social and cultural, jeopardising
environmentally based livelihoods in many areas of the world.   
 
40. As predicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “climate
change impacts will be differently distributed among different regions, generations, age
classes, income group, occupations and genders”12. The IPCC also notes: “the impacts of
climate change will fall disproportionately upon developing countries and the poor persons
within all countries, and thereby exacerbate inequities in health status and access to
adequate food, clean water, and other resources.” People living in poverty are more
vulnerable to environmental changes. The gender-poverty links show that 70 percent of the
poor in the world are women and their vulnerability is accentuated by race, ethnicity, and
age. When natural disasters and environmental change happen, women and men are affected
differently because of traditional, socially based roles and responsibilities.  
 
41. Most climate change issues, policies and programs are not gender neutral. In light of
this, several areas deserve attention, specifically: gender specific resource-use patterns;
gender-specific effects of climate change; gender aspects of mitigation and adaptation;
gender and decision-making on climate change; women’s capacity to cope with climate
change; and gender related patterns of vulnerability.
 
42. It is widely recognised that industrial countries bear the main responsibility for
greenhouse gas emissions but the impacts are felt most severely in developing countries. It
is therefore relevant to analyse the gender aspects of climate change in developed countries
from the angle of emissions and to also consider mitigation strategies from a gender
perspective. But so far, the critical issues of who is responsible for CO2 emissions and
through what activities, of how social, political and planning conditions affect emission

 
A. The Issues At Stake
 
43. Climate change has many gender-specific characteristics: (i) women are affected
differently, and more severely, by climate change and natural disasters because of social
roles, discrimination and poverty, (ii) women are still underrepresented in decision-making
about climate change, greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation/mitigation, and (iii) there
are gender biases in carbon emissions. They should be included not only because they are
most vulnerable but also because they have different perspectives and expertise to
contribute. Gender is a significant dimension to take into account when understanding
environmental change. Perspectives, responses and impacts related to disaster events are
different for men and women, as men and women have different social responsibilities,
vulnerabilities, capabilities and opportunities for adjustment and unequal assets and power
relations; they experience environmental change and disasters differently.
 
Women are affected differently and more severely
44. The effects of climate change manifested in the increase of extreme weather conditions
such as hot summers, droughts, storms or floods, impact women more severely than men,
both in developing and in developed countries. For example, the 20,000 people who died in
France during the extreme heat wave in Europe in 2003 included significantly more elderly
women than men.   
i. In natural disasters that have occurred in recent years, both in developing and in
developed countries, it is primarily the poor who have suffered—and all over the world, the
majority of the poor are women, who at all levels earn less than men. In developing
countries, women living in poverty bear a disproportionate burden of climate change
consequences. Because of women’s marginalized status and dependence on local natural
resources, their domestic burdens are increased, including additional work to fetch water, or
to collect fuel and fodder. In some areas, climate change generates resource shortages and
unreliable job markets, which lead to increased male-out migration and more women left
behind with additional agricultural and households duties. Poor women’s lack of access to
and control over natural resources, technologies and credit mean that they have fewer
resources to cope with seasonal and episodic weather and natural disasters. Consequently
traditional roles are reinforced, girls’ education suffers, and women’s ability to diversify
their livelihoods (and therefore their capacity to access income-generating jobs) is
diminished.

 
Women have been disproportionately affected by the Asian Tsunami
An Oxfam Report (March 2005) on the impact of the 2005 Asia Tsunami on women raised
alarms about gender imbalances since the majority of those killed and among those least able
to recover were women. In Aceh, for example, more than 75 percent of those who died were
women, resulting in a male-female ratio of 3:1 among the survivors. As so many mothers
died, there have been major consequences with respect to infant mortality, early marriage of
girls, neglect of girls’ education, sexual assault, trafficking in women and prostitution. These
woes, however, are largely neglected in the media coverage13.  
 
ii. Climate change, which reduces crop yields and food production particularly in
developing countries, affects women’s livelihood strategies and food security, and therefore
their right to food. Women are responsible for 70-80 percent of household food production
in Sub Saharan Africa, 65 percent in Asia, and 45 percent in Latin America and the
Caribbean. Traditional food sources may become more unpredictable and scarce as the
climate changes. Droughts and flooding can be detrimental to women who keep livestock as
a source of income and for security. Women’s knowledge and experience of maintaining
bio-diversity through the conservation and domestication of wild edible plant seeds and
food crop breeding is key to adapting to climate change more effectively.  
 
iii. Both in developing and in developed countries women are primary caregivers,
combining the care for children and the elderly with their domestic and income-earning
activities. These additional responsibilities place additional burdens on women impacting
their ability to work outside the home and to deal with the effects generated by
environmental changes caused by global warming.  
 
Environmental degradation exposes the girl child to more work and less education
In a study executed on behalf of ACTIONAID in 1993-1994 in the Himalayan region of
Nepal, it became clear that environmental degradation has compounded stress within
households and pressure on scarce resources. This meant that the pressure on children,
particularly girl children, to do more work and at an earlier age was increasing. Girls do the
hardest work, have the least say and the fewest education options. Programmes that
concentrate only on sending more girls to school were failing as the environmental and social
conditions of the families deteriorated. 14
 
 
iv. In traditional societies women are even more vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change because they are often not allowed to participate in the public sphere, and are
therefore less likely to receive critical information for emergency preparedness. They are
also less mobile due to strict and gendered codes of social behaviour, and have less chances
to escape from affected areas.
 
v. Climate protection instruments may, affect women and men differently because of their
differing economic status15.  Financial support of technical measures to protect the climate
likewise tends to be more in favour of men’s interests. Measures necessary to produce
changes in behaviour do not receive a similar level of recognition and support.  
 
vi. As reported by the gender disaster workshop in Ankara (2001)16, “Women’s human
rights are not comprehensively enjoyed throughout the disaster process. Economic and
social rights are violated in disaster processes if mitigation, relief, and reconstruction
policies do not benefit women and men equally. The right to adequate health care is violated
when relief efforts do not meet the needs of specific physical and mental health needs
throughout their life cycle, in particular when trauma has occurred. The right to security of
persons is violated when women and girls are victims of sexual and other forms of violence
while in relief camps or temporary housing. Civil and political rights are denied if women
cannot act autonomously and participate fully at all decision-making levels in matters
regarding mitigation and recovery.”  
 
Women are under-represented in decision-making
45.  Women’s role in communities is not formally recognized or accounted for in mitigation,
adaptation and relief efforts. Women’s knowledge about ecosystems and their strategies,
experiences and skills for coping with natural disasters and water shortages, are often
ignored. Strategies and policies to cope with climate change are neglecting the gender
dimensions of climate change and the current gender-climate change agenda. Women are
poorly represented in planning and decision-making processes in climate change policies,
limiting their capacity to engage in political decisions that can impact their specific needs
and vulnerabilities. Vulnerability and mitigation are part of the 1988 UN International Panel
on Climate Change agenda but gender perspectives have still not been incorporated in its
work.
 
i. The level of women’s participation in planning and decision-making on climate
protection is very low even in industrialised countries, and this is linked above all to the
heavily technical nature and male dominance in key areas of work; energy, transport, town
planning (Climate Alliance 2005). Consequently, it is generally men who profit more from
the newly emerging jobs in these areas, be it renewable energies or emissions trading.  
 
ii. At both international and national levels, it remains difficult for women to gain
recognition in the field of climate protection. While there is now a small and growing group
of committed women and men in policy forums advocating for gender to be taken into
account, response to the issues remains limited. At the national level, the picture is not
much better. The integration of gender appears most likely to succeed at the regional and
local levels but even here it is the exception rather than the rule.
  
 
Gender biases in carbon emissions 46 In some instances, responsibility for emissions
appears related to the gender-specific division of labour, economic power and the different
consumption and leisure habits of men and women. For example, emissions connected with
mobility have a clear gender component. In Europe, in both the work and leisure contexts,
women travel by car less frequently and over shorter distances, use smaller, energy-saving
cars and fly considerably less frequently than men.  
 
i.. Women are over represented as heads of low-income households and under represented
in high-income groups. In this respect, income levels play a role in CO2 emissions: the
higher the income, the higher the emissions from larger houses with more electrical
equipment, bigger cars and so on; the lower the income, the less the household’s ability to
use energy efficient appliances, build energy-saving houses or purchase electricity and heat
produced from renewable sources. These differences must be addressed in climate change
mitigation policies. Lack of technical education also has an effect since behavioural
changes, including consumption patterns cannot be made without knowledge of the
challenges and options for reducing CO2 emissions.
 
ii. Women and men perceive the cause of climate change (including CO2 emissions)
differently. In Germany, more than 50 percent of women compared to only 40 percent of
men, rate climate change brought about by global warming as extremely or very dangerous.
Women also believed very firmly that each individual can contribute toward protecting the
climate through his/her individual actions. However, policy planning does not reflect in
anyway these perceptions.
 
B. Lessons Learned
 
47. Women at the international level have organized to influence climate change
negotiations and national policies, and important international networks promoting the role
of women in energy and climate change have been established, including the Gender and
Climate Change Network established by LIFE, WECF, SAGEN, and ENERGIA during
COP-917.  
 
48. A concept for integrating the gender perspective in UN climate protection negotiations
has been drawn up by women’s networks in Germany supported by women’s groups
worldwide. Entry points for incorporating a gender perspective as well as strategies and
possible alliances are identified. Initial steps toward implementation are planned for COP 11
at the end of 2005, including a strategy workshop, a women’s caucus and a “Climate Talk”
to present the issues to high-level representatives. A workshop, to be organised jointly with
the IPCC will aim to close, in the medium term, the considerable gaps in research.
 
49. At the local level, women provide particular kinds of social capital for mitigation,
adaptation and coping with environmental change, actively organising during and after
disasters to help their households and community. 
 
50. In those situations where climate change programs and policies have recognized gender
differences within the same community, household or stakeholder groups, there have been
several benefits. For instance, unlike many other communities in Honduras, La Masica
reported no deaths after Hurricane Mitch in 1998; six months earlier, a disaster agency had
provided gender-sensitive community education on early warning systems and hazard
management. The community decided to involve women and men equally in all hazard
management activities and women took over form men the abandoned task of continuously
monitoring the early warning system. As a result, the municipality was able to evacuate the
areas promptly when Hurricane Mitch struck.  
 
Climate Programme 2004-2008, Lower Austria—Gender Mainstreaming
 
The government of the Austrian federal state of Lower Austria has applied gender
mainstreaming to its newly established climate protection programme. Five gender-
mainstreaming measures have been drafted and assigned to the over 200 climate protection
measures, to be taken into consideration during implementation. Resistance was substantial
which is why at the end of the agreement process only five GM measures remained,
although there had originally been double that number. These are as follows:  
 
• Representation of women in decision-making positions  
• Equality of opportunity in planning, organisation and promotions
• Promotion of women in technical occupations
• Inclusion of gender aspects in training
• Inclusion of gender aspects in PR work.
 
An initial review of implementation of the climate programme will be carried out in 2006,
when implementation of the gender mainstreaming components will also be reviewed 18.
Source: www.noe.gv.at/service/RU/RU3/Klimabuendnis/klimaprogramm.htm
 
51.  Women are able to map their risks and vulnerabilities from their own standpoint and to
play an important role in early warning. Women’s knowledge in adaptation (traditional and
community-specific) could be used as an important resource.
 
Women have a deep understanding of their environment
Inuit women in Northern Canada have always had a deep understanding of weather
conditions, as they were responsible for assessing hunting conditions and preparing the
hunters accordingly 19. During a drought in the small islands of the Federal States of
Micronesia, it was local women, knowledgeable about island hydrology as a result of land-
based work, who were able to find potable water by digging a new well that reached the
freshwater lens.
  
52.  Tapping women’s interest in disaster mitigation and preparedness has led to improved
community welfare during and after disasters. Ensuing strategies, including gender-sensitive
target group analysis, identification and preparation of safe areas for villagers to escape
floods, establishing local early cyclone warning monitoring and communication systems,
research on indigenous resilience practices and the creation of women-accessible emergency
loan funds, help the poor reduce their risks in natural disasters.   
 
53.  Through improved access to resources, technologies and finance, women have been
more likely to increase efficiency in their use of renewable energy and mitigate climate
change. More secure access to resources from forests and protected areas has resulted in
less deforestation and maintenance of carbon sinks and improved access to safe water for
humans and animals has enabled dry-land women to have more time for livelihood and
subsistence activities.
 
Costa Rica’s programme to promote conservation and carbon emission mitigation
 
Since 1996, Costa Rica has been implementing the Program to Pay for Environmental Services
(Programa de Pago por Servicios Ambientales) to promote and encourage conservation,
reforestation, carbon emission mitigation and its greenhouse effect and the sustainable
management of Costa Rica’s natural resources. The programme is a mechanism that offers
economic rewards to landowners who don’t cutback the forests on their land. The problem also
encompasses ownership issues since most landowners are men and women have little access.
To help resolve this problem, FONAFIFO (Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal), the
national institution in charge of implementing the program as well as promotion of gender
equity, imposes a fee to ensure that a certain amount of the gains goes to supporting women to
become landowners.  
 
 
54.  Improvements in family income have reduced the need for males to migrate to urban
and other areas, thereby increasing rural labour availability for anti-desertification and
reclamation practices (for example, soil and water conservation, cut-and-carry fodder
systems, intensive agro-forestry systems) and enabling traditional ecosystem management
practices to be passed on by both women and men.
 
55.  Gender-sensitive methods of problem analysis, situation description and impact
assessment will have to be developed for climate change contexts. Instruments such as
gender impact assessment can already be applied and can be developed further during the
process of application. For all instruments and measures relevant to climate protection, in
local areas and regions as well as at the national and international level, an impact analysis
should be conducted regarding the situation of women and men and how gender justice and
climate protection can be mutually reinforcing. Questions include: What is the socio-
economic situation forming the backdrop to these measures? Is care work and its
requirements recognised and taken into account? How is this reflected in the general
situation (for example, financial aid, information, supportive measures)?
 
Toolkit: “Climate for Change—Gender Equality and Climate Change Policy”
 
The Climate Alliance of European Cities conducted its first gender project between 2003
and 2005. In cooperation with 10 cities in four European countries, the situation of women
in municipal climate protection bodies was examined and instruments were discussed with a
view to increasing the proportion of women in decision-making positions.
Discussions also touched on ways that increasing the proportion of women would contribute
to climate protection, and whether a more gender-sensitive climate protection policy could
automatically be expected as a result. Even though the questions were left unanswered,
there was interest to continue working on them in the future21
 
Six Principles for Engendered Relief and Reconstruction: “Nothing in Disaster Work is
Gender-Neutral”:
 
• Think big: gender equality and risk reduction principles must guide all aspects of disaster
mitigation, response and reconstruction. The window of opportunity closes quickly.
• Get the facts: gender analysis is not optional or divisive but imperative to direct aid and
plan for full and equitable recovery.
• Work with grassroots women: women’s community organizations have insights,
information, experiences, networks, and resources vital to increasing disaster resilience.
• Work with and develop the capacities of existing women’s groups.
• Resist stereotypes: base all initiatives on knowledge of difference and specific cultural,
economic, political and sexual contexts, not on false generalities.
• Take a human rights approach: democratic and participatory initiatives serve women and
girls best. Women and men alike must be assured of the conditions needed to enjoy their
fundamental human rights, as well as simply survive.
• Respect and develop the capacities of women: avoid overburdening women with already
heavy workloads and family responsibilities 22.
 
V. CONCLUSION
 
56.  This paper provides background information and lessons learned concerning the gender
aspects of energy for sustainable development and climate change, with the expectation that
this material will be taken into account in the discussions during CSD-14 and in the
recommendations made at CSD-15. Although the gender issues discussed here may be
unfamiliar to some of the CSD participants, these are very important concerns for women
and men throughout the world.  Attention to the lessons and challenges that have been
reported in this document will increase the equity and effectiveness of energy for
sustainable development and climate change policies and initiatives adopted by national
governments, international agencies, donor countries, non-governmental organizations and
others involved in development decisions.  
                                                      
 
57.  There is a need to refocus the thinking and the debate on energy for sustainable
development and climate change to include a human rights perspective. Integrating a rights-
based approach to access to sustainable and affordable energy is an approach that will
recognise and take into account women’s specific needs and women’s human rights. Current
economic models based primarily on privatisation strategies do not include accountability in
terms of meeting people’s basic needs.  
 
58.  Women must be recognised as agents of change who have a significant role to play in
creating sustainable models for energy consumption and production, and in responsible
climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. There is an urgent need to include gender
equality and involvement of women at all environmental planning and decision-making
levels. Empowerment through capacity building and technical training will increase
women’s capacity to effectively participate in energy policy-making and decision-making
bodies.
 
59.  Finally, addressing the absence of the gender dimension in the UNFCCC, and the
scarcity of research focusing on the gender aspects of climate change will also help to build
a more consistent and solid approach regarding climate change policies.  
 

VI. ANNEXES
 
A. INTERNATIONAL AFFIRMATIONS ON GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT, ENERGY  
In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development produced Agenda 21,
which recognized the advancement of women as an essential element of sustainable
development. Principle 20 of the Rio Declaration states, “Women have a vital role in
environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential
to achieve sustainable development”. Women were identified as a major stakeholder group
to provide input into the work of the Commission on Sustainable Development.
 
The Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 produced the Beijing Platform for
Action that called on governments to support equal access for women to sustainable and
affordable energy technologies using participatory need assessments in their design of
energy plans. Objective K of the Beijing Platform also promoted gender mainstreaming in
all sustainable development activities, including an analysis of the differing effects on
women and men, before decisions are taken.
 
At the 2000 Millennium Summit, 191 governments affirmed their commitment in the
Millennium Declaration to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as
effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is
truly sustainable. They also recognized that “current unsustainable patterns of production
and consumption must be changed,” and pledged that “every effort will be made to ensure
the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol, preferably by the tenth anniversary of the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 2002,” and to embark on the
required reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases.  
 
In 2001, the Ninth Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD 9)
urged governments to address the health and safety concerns of women and children in rural
areas, including the impacts of carrying loads of fuel wood over long distances and
exposure to the smoke from open fires. CSD-9 also recommended international cooperation
to promote equal access and opportunities for women in relation to energy and greater
involvement of women in energy policy decision-making processes.
 
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) of 2002 adopted the
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, which called for actions to “promote women’s equal
access to and full participation in, on the basis of equality with men, decision-making at all
levels, mainstreaming gender perspectives in all policies and strategies, eliminating all
forms of violence and discrimination and violence against women, and improving the status,
health and economic welfare of women and girls” [Section II, Poverty eradication,
paragraph 7(d)]. Women’s participation was also emphasized in several of the energy
partnerships formed at the WSSD, including the Global Village Energy Partnership. [See
http://www.gvep.org/]
 

The UN Millennium project task Force on Education and Gender Equality (2005) affirms,
“gender equality and women’s empowerment are central to the achievement of all the
Millennium Development Goals. Development policies and actions that fail to take gender
inequality into account or that fail to enable women to be actors in those policies and
actions will have limited effectiveness and serious costs to societies”. However, at the 60th
session of the General Assembly of the UN (Sept.2005), although the outcomes of the
Millennium Summit reaffirmed the commitment of world leaders regarding the ultimate
goal of climate change, the gender aspects were not acknowledged.
 

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